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- hydrogen or from the neutralization of an acid and a
- base. State properties are said to be path independent.
- In any situation, the substances that are present
- can be divided into the system and the surroundings.
- The system includes any substance that is taking part
- in the reaction. The surroundings includes any
- substances not in the reaction. The system and
- surroundings together comprise the universe. An
- example of these categories can be found in the
- neutralization of HCl and NaOH in aqueous solution
- taking place in a covered beaker. The system includes
- the hydrochloric acid and the sodium hydroxide. The
- surroundings include the beaker and the cover. The
- universe includes the beaker, solutions, and the
- immediate surroundings. Generally, the universe
- includes anything immediately affecting the reaction,
- including anything that contains or controls the reaction.
- The temperature scale used in most thermodynamic
- measurements is the absolute or Kelvin scale. The
- conversion is 273.15 K=0¬°C=[1.8(¬°C)+32]¬°F.
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